A  proof  of  the  everlasting  qualities  of  brass  is  a  beam-head 
taken  from  a  sunken  Roman  ship  in  Lake  Nemi,  after 
having  been  immersed  in  water  for  2000  years,  and  now  on 
display  as  a  specimen  of  bronze-preservation  in  the  Roman 
National  Museum.  The  figure  is  the  head  of  a  lioness, 
with  moveable  ring  behind  the  "locked"  incisors. 


»rt  o 
*  £ 

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aw 

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r     £  ">HE  reason  for  brass  pipe  is  corrosion.   If  it  were 

•|       not  for  corrosion  there  would  be  no  brass  pipe. 

JL     Iron   and   steel,  though   intrinsically   cheaper 

than  brass,  are  more  expensive  in  installations  where 

the  corrosion  factor  plays  an  important  part. 

Brass  pipe  will  invariably  be  chosen  for  hot  and 
cold  water  service  installations  if  the  two  following 
factors  are  properly  considered. 

a.  Money   value   of   the   service   that   will   be 
rendered  during  the  life  of  the  pipe. 

b.  Design  of  the  installations  to  provide  the 
required  facilities  with  the  least  amount  of 
material. 

While  our  desire,  admittedly,  is  to  encourage  the 
use  of  brass  pipe,  it  is  likewise  our  purpose  to  present 
useful  information  that  will  assist  architects,  engineers, 
builders,  plumbers,  owners  and  others  in  obtaining  the 
maximum  value  for  a  given  expenditure  for  brass  pipe 
under  existing  conditions;  therefore,  any  criticisms 
or  suggestions  for  improvement  will  be  appreciatively 
considered. 

BRIDGEPORT  BRASS  COMPANY 


MM 

493319 


rass 


ron  and   teel 


All  Pipes  Corrode    All  pipe, 

whether 

steel,  wrought  iron,  cast  iron  or  brass 
will  fail  some  day  by  corrosion.  It  is 
simply  a  matter  of  time,  and  when 
permanent  construction  is  involved  the 
best  pipe  is  the  one  that  will  last  the 
longest.  Difference  in  first  cost  will 
not  justify  any  other  conclusion. 

Steel,  wrought^  iron,  cast  iron  and 
brass  pipe  each  has  its  proper  field  of 
usefulness.  No  experienced  builder  will 
seriously  question  the  following: 

Brass  for  salt  water  piping,  for  hot 
water  supply  piping,  and  for  cold 
water  supply  piping  at  least  where 
the  lines  are  concealed. 

Steel  or  wrought  iron  for  heating 
systems. 

Cast  iron  for  soil  pipes,  vents  and 
underground  service. 

Brass  for  Minimum  Corrosion 

Leading  iron  and  steel  pipe  manu- 
facturers admit  the  superiority  of  brass 
in  water  supply  systems  where  corrosion 
is  encountered.  Exhaustive  studies  fur- 
nish all  the  data  necessary  to  prove  the 
marked  susceptibility  of  both  iron  and 
steel  to  destruction  by  corrosion,  and 
the  comparative  immunity  of  brass. 


The  evidence  against  the  use  of  iron 
in  water  supply  systems  is  amply  sup- 
ported by  published  data. 


Iron    and    Steel    in 
Hot  Water  Service 


G  a  1  v  a  - 
nizing  the 

inner  sur- 

f  a  c  e    of 

iron  and  steel  pipe  is  employed  to  pro- 
long its  life,  and  has  been  found  to 
possess  some  advantages.  Sufficiently 
satisfactory  results,  however,  are  not 
assured  to  warrant  the  expectation  of 
materially  increased  life  in  service. 
Such  galvanizing  prevents  rusting  when 
the  pipe  is  new  and  during  the  period 
between  its  manufacture  and  its  in- 
stallation. 

Some  years  ago  an  investigation  was 
made  in  St.  Louis  by  Professor  Earle 
B.  Phelps,  of  the  Massachusetts  Insti- 
tute of  Technology,  which  showed  that 
corrosion  troubles  in  St.  Louis  were 
generally  confined  to  galvanized  instal- 
lations. These  pipes,  although  they 
had  been  in  service  only  a  few  years, 
were  often  completely  choked  with  a 
"yellowish  white  substance,"  which  ad- 
hered so  firmly  to  the  surface  that  it 
brought  away  with  it  flakes  of  the  zinc 
coating  when  it  was  removed.  Brass 
pipe  installations  revealed  no  deposits 
and  no  signs  of  corrosion.  The  interior 


surface  of  the  specimens  examined  was 
apparently  as  good  as  new. 

One  reason  why  galvanizing  some- 
times increases  the  susceptibility  of 
iron  pipe  to  corrosion  is  the  fact  that 
water,  from  which  organic  matter  has 
been  removed,  and  which  has  been 
chemically  treated,  often  dissolves  zinc 
more  readily.  Once  the  zinc  coating 
is  perforated,  corrosion  proceeds  with 
greater  rapidity  because  of  concen- 

TABLE  I 

GRAND  AVERAGE  OF  FOUR  CORROSION 
TESTS  ON  IRON  AND  STEEL  PIPE* 


Steel  Pipe 
(13  Samples) 

Wrought 
Iron 
(7  Samples) 

In. 

Per 

Cent 
of 
Wall 

In. 

Per 

Cent 
of 
Wall 

Depth  of  deepest  pit 
Depth   of  first   five 
deepest  pits  

0.059 
0.052 
0.042 
0.051 

38 

33^ 
27 
35 

0.077 
0.069 
0.057 
0.067 

49^ 

44^ 
37 
43 

Depth  of  second  five 
deepest  pits  

Depth  of  three  above 
classes  .  . 

NOTE:  The  average  thickness  of  wall  of  2-inch 
standard  pipe  is  0.155  inches,  the  average  depth  of 
thread  is  0.07  inches.  Pipes  which  pit  through  at  the 
thread  have  an  average  pit  depth  of  0.085  inches. 

*  National  Bulletin  No.  2D,  5th  Edition,  September, 
1920,  page  19,  National  Tube  Company. 


trated  action  on  small  areas.  Galvan- 
ized pipe  is  also  apt  to  give  trouble 
where  a  considerable  amount  of  carbon 
dioxide  is  contained  in  the  water. 

Hydrogen  sulphide,  sometimes  pre- 
sent in  artesian  water,  dissolves  zinc, 
producing  zinc  sulphide,  and  when 
constantly  present,  often  causes  sick- 
ness—  the  symptoms  of  which  are 
cramps,  fainting  spells  and  nausea. 

In  New  York  City,  to  compare 
wrought  iron  pipe  with  steel  pipe,  tests 
were  made  in  lines  supplying  public 
shower  baths.  The  period  of  observa- 
tion varied  from  two  years  and  five 
months  to  two  years  and  nine  and 
one-half  months.  The  average  results 
from  four  separate  tests  published  by 
one  of  the  pipe  manufacturers  are 
entered  in  Table  1. 

Another  test  reported  in  the  same 
publication  covers  samples  of  wrought 
iron,  black  steel,  copper-alloy  steel, 
galvanized  steel  and  galvanized  copper- 
alloy  steel. 

These  tests  were  made  in  a  hot 
water  line  with  the  various  samples 
connected  in  series.  The  period  was 
eleven  months,  although  for  about 
three  and  one-half  months  during  the 
summer  season  almost  no  water  was 


Figure  2.    Piece  of  galvanized  steel  pipe  used  for  1^  years  for  hot  water  supply  to  a  garage.  It  was  enclosed 
in  concrete;  thus  encased  it  was  used  until  completely  destroyed. 


taken  through  the  pipes.  At  the  end 
of  the  tests  the  pipes  were  practically 
filled  with  rust.  This  deposit  was  re- 
moved and  the  inside  surface  brushed 
with  a  wire  brush.  The  corrosion  was 
then  measured  by  means  of  a  depth 
gage.  The  average  depths  of  the  first 
40  pits  were  as  given  in  Table  II. 

TABLE  II 
CORROSION  TESTS  * 


In. 

Per 

Cent 

Wrought  Iron 

0.0674 
0.0544 
0  .  0639 
0.0547 
0.0938 

43.5 
35.1 
41.2 
35.3 
60.5 

Steel  

Copper-  Alloy  Steel  

Galvanized.  Steel  

Galvanized  Copper-  Alloy  Steel 

*  National  Bulletin  No.  2D,  5th  Edition,  September 
1920,  page  20,  National  Tube  Company. 

Brass  vs.  Iron  and  Steel     One 

of  the 


in  Hot  Water  Service 


manu- 
f  a  c  - 


turers  of  iron  pipe  made  a  comprehen- 
sive investigation  some  years  ago  of 
piping  installations  in  Pittsburgh.  *  The 


Figure  3.  Galvanized  iron  fittings  with  brass 
nipples.  Brass  untouched,  iron  fittings  filled  with  rust 
and  at  one  point  completely  perforated. 

*  Byers'  Pipe  Bulletin  No.  30,  3d  Edition,  October 
1913.     A.  M.  Byers  Company. 


published  reports  of  the  observations 
indicate  that  the  life  of  wrought  iron 
pipe  under  these  particular  conditions 
is  approximately  twice  that  of  steel 
pipe.  Among  the  buildings  examined, 
there  were  34  equipped  with  brass 
pipe.  These  installations  ranged  in 
age  from  six  to  eighteen  years  and 
yet  none  had  failed.  The  fact  that 
not  one  of  the  brass  pipe  installations 
had  failed  makes  it  impossible  to  give 
the  brass  full  credit  because  no  one 
knows  how  long  these  brass  installa- 
tions may  continue  in  service  without 
failure.  Of  the  28  steel  installations 
which  range  in  age  from  five  to  eleven 
years,  85  per  cent  had  failed,  and  of 
the  67  wrought  iron  installations  rang- 
ing in  age  from  six  to  nineteen  years, 
92  per  cent  had  failed.  For  easy  com- 
parison Table  III  was  compiled  from 
the  detailed  data  tabulated  in  the 
original  report. 

TABLE  III 

RESULTS  IN  ACTUAL  PIPING  INSTALLA- 
TIONS IN  THE  PITTSBURGH 
DISTRICT 


Brass 

Steel 

Wrought 
Iron 

Number  of  installations 

34 

28 

67 

Number  of  failures  .... 

None 

24 

62 

Number  of  renewals  .  .  . 

None 

19 

49 

Maximum  age  of  time 

of  inspection,  years.  . 

18 

11 

18* 

Average  age  at  time  of 

inspection,  years  .... 

n% 

7% 

14 

Average  time  to  first  re- 

placement, years.  .  .  . 

** 

5% 

wy2 

Minimum  time  to  first 

replacement,  years  .  . 

** 

2 

6 

*  Repaired. 

**  No  replacements. 


Rust  Accumulation  in  Cor  ro- 
ll~~Z  ~T~^r.  sion  in 

Iron  and  Steel  ripes    iron  or 

steel 

pipe  produces  "rust."  Sometimes  this 
rust  clings  to  the  surface  of  the  pipe 
with  great  tenacity;  at  other  times  it 
is  loosened  by  the  flow  of  the  water 
and  carried  along.  Iron  converted  into 
rust  occupies  10  times  its  volume  as  a 
metal,  therefore  tremendous  quantities 
of  rust  are  produced  as  corrosion 
proceeds. 

Rusty  water  stains  porcelain  fixtures 
and  textile  fabrics.  A  leak  in  an  iron 
or  steel  pipe  will  inevitably  carry  rusty 
water,  which  will  stain  floors,  ceilings, 
walls  or  whatever  articles  of  furniture 
or  furnishings  it  may  encounter. 

When  rust  clings  to  the  surface  it 
does  not  take  long  to  plug  the  pipe. 
When  it  is  considered  that  I/27th  of 
an  inch  corroded  from  the  interior  sur- 
face of  a  1^-inch  pipe  will  fill  it  solid 
with  rust,  it  is  evident  that  only  a 
short  time  is  required  to  choke  the  line 
and  make  it  useless,  unless  the  rust 
is  flushed  away  by  the  action  of  the 
water.  The  smaller  the  pipe  the  more 


Figure  4.       Galvanized  iron  fitting  clogged  with  rust 
from  the  hot  water  piping. 


serious  this  action:  in  a  1-inch  pipe  it 
requires  only  i/4°t±L  of  an  inch  re- 
moved by  corrosion  to  fill  it  with 
rust. 

The  plugging  of  pipes  usually  occurs 
more  rapidly  than  the  time  required  to 
produce  the  rust  in  any  one  section, 
because  at  restricted  points,  as  in 
elbows  or  at  the  bottom  of  a  riser, 
rust  from  considerable  lengths  of  pipe 
will  naturally  collect.  Plugged  pipes 
especially  in  hot  water  service  are 
common  occurrences.  An  actual  ex- 
ample is  shown  in  Figure  4. 

A  distinct  advantage  of  brass  pipe 
is  the  absence  of  any  process  of  cor- 
rosion to  discolor  the  water  and  plug 
the  pipes.  Engineers  employ  smaller 
sizes  of  brass  pipe  for  a  given  service 
than  of  either  iron  or  steel,  because  the 
full  carrying  capacity  of  the  brass  can 
be  counted  upon  throughout  its  life. 

Lead  Pipe  Lead  has  been  used 
for  the  manufacture  of 
pipe  for  hundreds  of  years.  In  some 
parts  of  Europe  large  water  mains  of 
lead  are  still  in  existence.  In  cold  water 
service  it  is  fairly  satisfactory,  but  in 
hot  water  service  it  is  apt  to  give 
trouble.  Lead  pipe  should  not  be  used 
in  systems  supplying  drinking  water 
because  of  the  danger  of  lead  poison- 
ing. Massachusetts  State  Board  of 
Health  condemns  water  which  con- 
tains 0.1  grain  of  lead  per  gallon.  The 
serious  thing  about  this  poisoning 
is  its  cumulative  character,  for  no 
matter  how  small  the  dose,  a  definite 
effect  is  produced,  and  each  additional 
dose  adds  to  that  effect  until  serious 
illness  and  possibly  death  results. 


Lead  Lined  Pipe    A  certain 

amount  of 

steel  pipe  lined  with  lead  has  been 
placed  on  the  market  but  has  never 
come  into  extensive  use  because  of  the 
following  factors : 

1.  Difficulty  of  producing  a  pipe 
free  from  faults  in  the  lining. 
A  slight  burr  on  the  pipe  pro- 
jecting through  the  lead  lining 
will  set  up  electrolytic  action 
and  cause  failure. 

2.  Difficulty  of  making  joints  with- 
out exposing  the  steel  behind 
the  lead,  and  setting  up  serious 
electrolytic  corrosion. 

3.  Cost       approaching      that     of 
brass  with  actual  life  not  mate- 
rially better  than  steel. 

Installations  of  this  kind  have  been 
known  to  fail  completely  in  about  five 
years,  probably  due  to  intense  electro- 
lytic action  at  points  where  the  lead 
lining  was  damaged  from  one  cause  or 
another. 


Bridgeport  Plum- 
rite     Brass     Pipe 


The  Bridge- 
port Brass 
Company  de- 
notes  as 

"Bridgeport  Plumrite"  that  brass  mix- 
ture which  is  best  suited  to  the  manu- 
facture of  brass  pipe  for  fresh  water 
service,  and  for  carrying  certain  liquids 
used  in  chemical  processes.  The  action 


of  hot  salt  water  and  certain  other 
liquids  is  particularly  severe  and  for 
such  purposes  brass  of  special  composi- 
tion is  recommended.* 


Figure  5.  Pieces  of  rust  (full  size)  taken  from  the 
interior  surface  of  a  genuine  wrought-iron  pipe  after 
seven  years  in  hot  water  service. 


This  pipe  has  been  manufactured  by 
the  Bridgeport  Brass  Company  for 
more  than  forty  years.  In  the  early 
days  some  changes  were  made  in  com- 
position, but  for  many  years  the  only 
changes  have  been  in  the  nature  of 
refinements  in  the  processes  of  manu- 
facture for  the  purpose  of  increasing 
uniformity  and  maintaining  the  stan- 
dard of  quality. 

Although  Plumrite  brass  pipe  has 
been  employed  all  these  years  we  know 
of  no  instance  of  its  removal  because 
of  corrosion.  It  is  conservative  to 
state  that  the  life  of  this  pipe  is  at 
least  that  of  the  building  itself. 


*  The  Bridgeport  Brass  Company's  Research  Department  is  equipped  to  study  special  problems,  and  is 
prepared  to  recommend  the  proper  metal  for  each  particular  set  of  conditions  which  may  be  in  any  way 
extraordinary. 


10 


NL 


While  there  is  no  absolute  unity  of 
opinion  on  the  theory  of  corrosion, 
perhaps  a  comparison  with  a  simple 
battery  will  best  serve  to  explain  the 
generally  accepted  opinion  that  electro- 
lytic action,  due  to  a  difference  in 
potential  between  one  part  and  an- 
other of  the  pipe,  is  the  cause  of 
corrosion. 

A  simple  primary  battery  made  by 
inserting  a  carbon  and  a  zinc  rod  into 
a  jar  containing  salt  water  will,  when 
a  voltmeter  is  connected  with  one 
side  to  the  carbon  rod  and  the  other 
side  to  the  zinc  rod,  indicate  an  elec- 
trical potential  difference  which  is  de- 
noted as  an  electromotive  force  (e.m.f.). 
It  will  also  be  found  that  to  cause  a 
deflection  in  the  right  direction,  the 


Figure  6.  Simple  electrolytic  cell,  demonstrating 
the  various  elements  that  enter  into  electrolytic  cor- 
rosion. Anode  (electropositive  area)  =  Zinc;  Cathode 
(electronegative  area)  =  Carbon;  electrolyte  (water)  = 
salt  solution.  These  three  elements  are  necessary  for 
corrosion. 


positive  terminal  of  the  voltmeter 
must  be  connected  to  the  carbon  rod, 
indicating  the  carbon  to  be  the  positive 
pole  of  the  battery,  and  the  zinc  the 
negative  pole. 

Referring  to  Figure  6,  if  a  connec- 
tion is  made  from  the  positive  to  the 
negative  pole  of  the  battery,  electricity 
will  flow  in  the  circuit  thus  formed: 
that  is,  electricity  will  flow  from  the 
positive  pole  to  the  negative  pole 
through  the  circuit,  but  inside  of  the 
battery  it  will  flow  from  the  zinc  to 
the  carbon,  as  shown  by  the  arrow. 

Where  electricity  leaves  a  metal  and 
enters  a  liquid,  as  is  here  the  case,  the 
metal  is  dissolved  and  goes  into 
solution,  but  where  electricity  leaves 
the  solution  and  goes  into  a  metal 
there  is  no  dissolution  of  the  metal. 

The  battery  shown  in  Figure  6 
illustrates  electrolytic  action.  The 
zinc  is  the  anode  or  the  place  from 
which  the  electricity  flows  into  the 
solution.  The  carbon  is  the  cathode 
or  the  place  where  the  electricity  leaves 
the  solution.  The  salt  solution  is  the 
electrolyte  which  carries  the  electricity 
from  the  anode  to  the  cathode.  In 
order  to  have  electrolytic  action  or 
corrosion,  it  is  necessary  to  have  an 
anode,  cathode  and  an  electrolyte. 

The  anode  is  always  the  area  of 
metal  which  is  corroded.  The  electro- 
lyte is  the  water  carried  by  the  pipe, 
and  the  cathode  which  completes  the 
electrolytic  system  is  either  an  im- 
purity in  the  chemical  composition  of 
the  metal,  an  ingredient  in  the  alloy 


11 


of  the  metal,  or  an  area  that  is  physi- 
cally different  from  the  anode  area. 

The  actual  process  of  corrosion  takes 
place  in  a  series  of  energy  transforma- 
tions. It  would  serve  no  purpose  to 
discuss  these  in  detail  in  the  present 
instance,  but  the  fundamental  princi- 
ple perhaps  can  be  stated  to  advan- 
tage. If  it  is  assumed  that  an  iron 
pipe  containing  water  is  allowed  to 
stand,  a  certain  amount  of  iron  will  be 
dissolved  from  the  electro-positive 
areas.  If  oxygen  is  present  the  iron 
will  be  oxidized  and  form  rust,  which 
will  be  deposited  on  the  electronegative 
area;  sometimes  this  rust  is  of  such  a 
nature  as  to  cling  to  the  surface  and 
gradually  fill  up  the  pipe- — other 
times  it  is  so  loosely  attached  that 
the  flow  of  the  water  carries  it  away. 

Initial  conditions  may  be  such  as  to 
produce  electrolytic  action,  and  said 
action  may  so  alter  the  conditions  that 
it  checks  itself.  This  explains  instances 
where  corrosion  is  rapid  for  a  time  and 
then  slows  down  to  a  much  lower  rate. 
Sometimes  this  result  is  accomplished 
by  a  chemical  change  on  the  surface 
of  the  pipe — other  times  it  is  caused  by 
the  concentration  of  hydrogen  at  the 
negative  areas.  The  building  up 
of  this  opposition  is  called  Polariza- 
tion. For  example,  in  the  case  of  a 
pipe  filled  with  water  but  free  from 
oxygen,  electrolytic  action  results  in 
dissolving  iron  by  the  water  and  re- 
leasing hydrogen  which  migrates  to  the 
negative  areas  of  the  pipe,  causing 
polarization  and  thus  stopping  the  cor- 
rosive action.  Even  pure  water  will 
dissolve  iron  and  this  action  is  entirely 
independent  of  the  presence  of  air  or 
oxygen.  The  quantity  of  iron  dis- 


solved depends  upon  the  character  of 
the  water.  Small  amounts  of  acid 
greatly  increase  the  quantity  of  iron 
which  goes  into  solution. 

If  corrosion  is  to  continue,  oxygen 
must  be  supplied  to  take  up  the  hydro- 
gen and  oxidize  the  iron  out  of  the 
solution,  by  forming  iron  hydroxides 
so  that  it  can  absorb  more.  In  heating 
systems,  where  no  new  water  is 
introduced,  the  oxygen  is  soon  used  up, 
and  the  water  dissolves  all  the  iron  it 
has  oxygen  to  satisfy  when  corrosion 
practically  ceases.  Thus  is  explained 
the  utility  of  iron  and  steel  pipe  in  hot 
water  heating  and  sprinkler  systems. 

In  iron  or  steel  service  pipes  carry- 
ing large  quantities  of  water,  oxygen  is 
plentiful  and  corrosion  proceeds  rap- 
idly. Heating  the  water  increases  the 
rate  of  corrosion,  so  that  hot- water 
pipe  usually  lasts  only  one-third  to 
one-fifth  as  long  as  the  same  pipe  in 
cold  water  service. 

To  sum  up,  the  conditions  producing 
rapid  corrosion  of  a  given  metal  are: 

1.  Electro-negative  substances. 

2.  Electrolyte. 

3.  Oxygen. 


Electro-Negative 
Substances 


Iron  and  steel 
are  composite 

structures  al- 
ways contain- 
ing impurities.  They  are  never  per- 
fectly homogenous  and  never  free  from 
segregations,  furnishing  electro-nega- 
tive areas  to  start  corrosion. 

Modern  high-speed  production 
methods  in  the  iron  and  steel  industry 
aggravate  characteristics  which  aid 
corrosion.  Brass,  on  the  other  hand, 
can  be  made  of  pure  metal,  thoroughly 


12 


mixed  and  cast  without  segregation, 
and  it  can  be  worked  and  annealed  so 
as  to  leave  no  internal  strains.  This 
means  that  electro-negative  areas  can 
be  uniformly  distributed  and  that  pit- 
ting is  practically  impossible.  When 
properly  made  it  is  almost  corrosion- 
proof  as  far  as  water  is  concerned. 

Electrolyte  I*1  service  pipes  the 
electrolyte  is  water . 
This  water  is  never  quite  pure,  so  that 
its  ability  to  dissolve  iron  may  vary 
over  a  considerable  range.  Pure  dis- 
tilled water  will  dissolve  iron  and  act 
as  an  electrolyte.  Impurities  simply 
increase  the  activity  of  water  in  the 
corrosion  process. 

Oxygen  The  oxygen  necessary  for 
continued  corrosion  is  sup- 
plied by  the  water.  Therefore,  the 
more  water  carried  by  the  pipe  the 
greater  the  corrosion.  Furthermore, 
the  activity  of  the  oxygen  is  greatly 
increased  by  heat. 

Corrosion  of  Brass     Someone 

has  visual- 
ized corrosion  by  calling  it  nature's 
method  of  returning  metals  to  the 
natural  state  in  which  they  are  found 
in  the  earth.  Iron  being  found  as  an 
oxide,  attempts  at  every  opportunity 
to  break  away  from  the  metallic  state 
and  return  to  the  oxide  state.  Copper, 
which  is  the  major  constituent  of  brass, 
on  the  other  hand  is  found  in  nature 
in  a  pure  metallic  state.  Therefore, 
it  has  no  tendency  similar  to  iron  to 
change  its  condition  from  the  pure 
metal  to  an  oxide.  Zinc,  on  the  other 
hand,  which  is  the  second  principal 
constituent  of  brass,  is  not  found  in 


pure  metallic  form  in  nature.  There- 
fore, when  corrosion  does  take  place 
it  is  most  often  the  zinc  which  is  trans- 
formed. 

Electrolytes      in    Brass  properly 

7^~~       ~~T~       e  r»  made  will  not 

Corrosion  of  Brass  dissolve  in  or_ 

dinary  drink- 
ing water,  and  corrosion  cannot  take 
place  unless  metal  goes  into  solution. 
Plumrite  brass  is  made  for  pipes  carry- 
ing ordinary  fresh  water,  hot  or  cold, 
such  as  is  used  for  drinking  and  bath- 
ing. Where  salt  water  is  concerned,  a 
special  mixture  is  used  which  contains 
a  higher  percentage  of  copper,  and  be- 
sides zinc,  contains  certain  other  in- 
gredients. Water  carrying  ammonia, 
nitrates  or  nitrites,  will  corrode  brass. 
Decaying  vegetable  matter  produces 
nitrogen  compounds.  However,  expe- 
rience demonstrates  that  vent  pipes 
which  carry  sewer  gases  in  which  there 
are  fumes  from  decaying  vegetable  mat- 
ter, can  be  made  of  brass  pipe  to  ad- 
vantage, because  such  gases  produce 
a  rapid  and  uniform  corrosion  which 
coats  the  pipe  with  a  hard,  dark- 
colored  layer  of  material  that  effec- 
tively protects  it  from  the  nitrogen 
compounds. 

Oxygen    in     the     Since  Plum- 

~ ; ~ rite     Brass 

Corrosion  of  Brass     does  not  dis. 

solve  in  or- 
dinary fresh  water,  whether  hot  or 
cold,  it  is  not  affected  by  oxygen  in 
the  water.  Oxygen  in  drinking  water 
is  healthful  and  palatable.  Large 
water-works  systems  go  to  a  consider- 
able expense  to  aer-ate  water,  charging 
it  with  as  much  air  as  it  will  carry. 


13 


Figure  7.  Pieces  of  pipe  here  shown  were  installed  in  a  feed  water  line  operating  at  200°  F.  All  the  pipes 
except  the  brass  and  the  lead  lined  have  been  in  service  for  eight  years,  the  latter  have  been  in  service  seven 
years.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  amount  of  corrosion  is  practically  the  same  in  steel  and  genuine  wrought 
iron,  whether  used  black  or  galvanized.  All  four  specimens  appear  to  be  equally  corroded. 


A  —  Sample  lengths  of 
pipe  taken  from  this  sys- 
tem. Beginning  at  the 
left  the  pipes  are:  Black 
wrought  iron,  black  steel, 
iron  dipped  in  lead,  Plum- 
rite  brass,  galvanized 
genuine  wrought  iron  and 
galvanized  steel. 


B — Close  view  of  three 
of  the  pipes  showing  the 
character  of  the  corrosion. 
Beginning  at  the  left 
they  are:  Black  genuine 
wrought  iron,  black  steel 
and  iron  dipped  in  lead. 
These  specimens  have  not 
been  scraped  or  disturbed 
in  any  way. 


C  —  Close-up  of  three 
specimens  showing  the 
corroded  surfaces  undis- 
turbed. Beginning  at  the 
left  they  are:  Plumrite 
brass,  galvanized  genuine 
wrought  iron  and  galvan- 
ized steel.  There  is  abso- 
lutely no  sign  of  corrosion 
in  the  Plumrite  which  is 
smooth  and  clean  inside. 
All  the  other  pipes  are 
lined  with  large  masses 
of  rust.  Both  the  iron 
and  the  steel  pipe  exhibit 
rust  of  similar  character 
and  quantity. 


14 


D 


D— Black  steel.  The 
rust  has  been  scraped 
away  with  a  dull  tool 
to  determine  the  depth 
of  the  corrosion.  The 
rust  was  very  hard 
and  if  it  had  been 
scraped  with  a  sharper 
instrument  it  would 
have  revealed  deeper 
pitting  than  is  here 
shown.  Careful  exam- 
ination will  reveal  that 
there  is  practically  no 
pipe  left  at  the  threads. 


E  —  Galvanized  steel 
which  has  been  scraped 
to  reveal  pitting.  Wall 
of  pipe  at  threads 
practically  eaten 
through. 


F — Genuine  wrougrit 
iron  which  has  been 
scraped  to  reveal  pit- 
ting. Wall  of  the  pipe 
is  very  nearly  con- 
sumed at  threads. 


G — Galvanized  genu- 
ine wrought  iron  which 
has  been  scraped  to 
reveal  pits.  Corrosion 
is  even  worse  than  in 
the  black  metal  and 
the  wall  of  pipe  is 
actually  punctured  at 
the  threads. 


H — Lead  dipped  iron 
pipe.  The  corroded 
lead  is  clearly  visible  as 
is  also  the  corrosion  of 
the  iron  under  the  lead 
lining.  The  rust  was 
picked  out  from  behind 
the  lead  with  a  sharp 
instrument  revealing 
the  cavities  which  ex- 
tended practically 
through  the  wall  of 
the  iron  at  the  threads. 


I^Plumrite  Brass 
Pipe.  It  will  be  noted 
that  there  is  absolutely 
no  sign  of  corrosion. 
The  original  wall  thick- 
ness of  the  pipe  is 
plainly  visible  at  the 
end.  The  life  of  this 
pipe  would  certainly 
exceed  that  of  the 
boiler  to  which  it 
supplies  feed  water. 


G 


H 


15 


Corrosion    of    Iron    and     Steel     ent    there    are   two   methods    in   use: 


It  was  shown  in  the  preceding  chapter 
that  electro-negative  areas  are  largely 
responsible  for  corrosion,  and  since  in 
the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  it  is 
impossible  to  eliminate  these,  corrosion 
must  be  attacked  by  seeking  to  control 
the  water  in  the  pipe. 

By  removing  the  air  or  oxygen  from 
water  before  it  enters  iron  or  steel 
pipe,  corrosion  can  be  reduced,  pro- 
longing the  life  of  the  pipe.  At  pres- 


1.  Deactivation     A  system 

through 

which  the  service  water  passes,  ex- 
posed to  large  surfaces  of  iron  for  a 
sufficient  time  to  give  up  its  oxygen 
by  corroding  the  iron  before  the 
oxygen  has  an  opportunity  to  attack 
the  pipe. 

2.  Deaeration      A    system   de- 

signed  to   boil 
all  the  air  out  of  the  water  at  either 


Figure  8.      The  water  supplied  to  New  York  City  is  purified  at  the  start  by  charging  with  air  before  being  con- 
ducted underground  ninety  miles  to  the  city. 


16 


atmospheric     pressure      or      in      a 
vacuum. 

Both  of  these  systems  have  served 
to  prolong  the  life  of  iron  and  steel- 
pipe  installations,  and  even  though  in- 
troducing another  element,  are  in  some 
cases  preferable  to  repiping,  which  in 
our  modern  buildings  represents  a  very 
great  expense.  These  are,  however,  at 
best  only  a  check,  and  unless  the  in- 
stallation is  extremely  large,  designed 
to  take  care  of  maximum  requirements, 
they  cannot  perform  satisfactorily  when 
most  needed. 

New  Construction      The  installa- 
tion of  brass 

pipe  in  new  construction  precludes  the 
ultimate  need  of  considering  a  sec- 
ondary installation  for  prolonging  pipe 
life.  Furthermore,  the  reduction  or 
even  elimination  of  air  or  oxygen  in 
water  does  not  wholly  prevent  corro- 
sion of  iron  or  steel  service  piping,  since 
without  the  presence  of  these  agencies 
water  still  has  ability  to  dissolve  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  iron.  Also,  no  system 
of  treating  the  water  flowing  through 
the  pipe  can  possibly  affect  the  outside 
corrosion,  often  an  important  factor  in 
iron  and  steel  piping,  especially  when 
exposed  to  a  damp  atmosphere. 


Principles  of 
Deactivation 


In  judging  a  deac- 
tivating plant  it 
must  be  remem- 
bered that  deacti- 
vation  can  only  take  place  where  water 
is  left  in  contact  with  iron  long  enough 
to  permit  the  process  of  corrosion  to 
extract  all  the  oxygen.  Therefore,  it  is 
of  first  importance  in  selecting  an  out- 
fit to  be  sure  that  the  maximum  de- 


mand for  hot  water  can  be  supplied 
and  still  give  time  for  the  deactivation 
process  to  take  place. 

In  most  installations  the  rate  of  using 
hot  water  throughout  the  24  hours 
varies  enormously.  Not  only  is  this 
true  of  the  24-hour  periods,  but  it  is 
also  true  of  the  weekly  periods.  There- 
fore, a  guarantee  on  the  part  of  the 
company  furnishing  the  deactivator 
should  not  be  accepted  on  the  basis  of 
average  flow,  but  rather  on  the  basis  of 
maximum  flow. 

The  question  of  temperature  must 
also  be  considered.  For  instance,  for 
the  purposes  of  comparison  it  may  be 
stated,  that  with  a  given  installation  it 
required  24  hours  at  room  temperature 
to  deactivate  the  water.  At  180°  F. 
it  required  only  half  an  hour,  and  at 
212°  it  required  only  a  few  minutes. 
This  characteristic  adds  one  other  ob- 
stacle to  the  successful  operation  of  a 
deactivator,  because  when  water  is 
being  drawn  at  the  maximum  rate,  it 
usually  drops  in  temperature.  Con- 
sequently, the  deactivation  is  enor- 
mously retarded  at  the  very  time  when 
it  should  be  increased. 

It  can  be  said  in  favor  of  the  deacti- 
vator that  most  of  iron  that  is  rusted 
in  the  deactivator  has  saved  a  corre- 
sponding amount  of  rust  from  the  pip- 
ing system,  but  it  cannot  be  claimed, 
and  is  not  claimed,  that  a  deactivator 
can  be  made  of  such  proportions  that 
it  will  eliminate  all  corrosion  in  the 
piping  system  of  a  modern  building. 

In  addition  to  the  difficulties  result- 
ing from  large  fluctuations  in  flow  and 
temperature,  deactivators  also  usually 
suffer  from  lack  of  proper  circulation 


17 


in  such  a  way  that  water  passing 
through  rapidly  is  apt  to  take  a  shorter 
course  than  water  that  passes  through 
slowly.  In  many  cases  proper  circula- 
tion cannot  be  employed,  because  of 
the  difficulties  of  settling  out  the  rust 
which  under  present  methods  is  col- 
lected at  the  bottom  of  the  tank. 
Where  rust  is  filtered  out  a  positive 
circulation  path  might  be  employed 
to  advantage. 

Deaerating     The  boiling   methods 
are  usually  referred  to 
as   deaerating   processes.      In   general 
there  are  two  methods  employed: 

1.  Heating  the  water  and  expos- 
ing it  in  a  separating  chamber 
which  will  carry  off  the  air. 

2.  Application  of  vacuum  to  the 
water  which  will  allow  the  air 
to  boil  out  at  low  temperature. 

The  first  method  is  applicable  wher- 
ever steam  heat  is  always  available  and 
the  deaerating  takes  place  by  raising 
the  temperature  of  the  water  to  a  point 
just  below  the  boiling  point  in  a  special 
steam  heater  equipped  with  automatic 
devices  for  regulating  the  level  of  the 
water,  the  temperature  of  the  water 
and  the  flow  of  the  steam. 

The  vacuum  system,  which  involves 
machinery  such  as  vacuum  pumps,  is 
only  used  in  power  plants  or  in  places 
where  it  is  necessary  to  remove  oxygen 
from  cold  water.  The  deactivating 
process  is  too  slow  for  cold  water.  It 
would  require  a  deactivating  tank  too 
large  to  be  practicable. 

The  boiling  system  is  more  effective 
in  removing  oxygen  than  the  deacti- 
vating system,  because  it  takes  up  less 


space  and  it  passes  all  the  water 
through  the  same  process.  Conse- 
quently it  is  less  upset  by  variations  in 
demand  for  water.  The  disadvantage 
of  the  system  is  that  it  requires  either 
steam  or  the  operation  of  vacuum 
pumps,  and  therefore  must  be  given 
attention  at  regular  intervals. 

The  deactivating  system  is  an  appar- 
atus with  few  refinements  and  requires 
attention  only  at  prolonged  intervals, 
but  a  deaerating  system  requires  prac- 
tically continuous  attendance.  In  a 
power  plant  or  in  a  large  building 
where  steam  is  always  available,  the 
matter  of  attendance  is  not  serious. 

A  properly  designed  and  properly 
operated  system  for  removing  oxygen 
will  lengthen  the  life  of  hot  water  pip- 
ing. Therefore,  a  building  which  is 
already  equipped  with  iron  pipe  may 
find  it  profitable  to  postpone  tempo- 
rarily the  renewal  of  the  whole  system. 

It  is  a  fact  that  corrosion  in  an  iron 
or  steel  piping  system  cannot  be  totally 
eliminated  by  deaerating  or  deactivat- 
ing, even  with  a  perfect  system,  be- 
cause of  the  dissolving  power  of  the 
water  itself,  the  impracticability  of  re- 
moving oxygen  from  cold  water,  and 
the  impossibility  of  stopping  corrosion 
where  leaks  occur.  The  only  answer 
at  the  present  time  to  all  these  diffi- 
culties is  a  complete  installation  of 
brass  pipe. 

Consequently  the  architect  or  engi- 
neer specifying  for  new  construction 
will  find  brass  pipe  to  be  the  proper 
answer  to  his  corrosion  problem,  be- 
cause it  is  practically  corrosion  proof 
and  equally  suitable  for  cold  and  hot 
water  service. 


18 


Brass  Pipe  for  Fresh 
Water     Service 


Pr op  er - 
ly  made 
brass  pipe 
will  last 

indefinitely  in  hot  or  cold  fresh  water 
service.  Examples,  prove  that,  after 
twenty  years  or  more  of  active  service, 
there  is  no  noticeable  sign  of  corrosion. 
While  no  corrosion  failure  has  been 
recorded,  there  have  been  brass  pipe 
failures  due  to  improper  manufacture 
of  the  pipe,  or  to  the  use  of  inferior 
fittings,  or  to  installation  by  incompe- 
tent persons.  With  brass  pipe  all 
thought  of  having  to  repipe  in  a  com- 
paratively short  time  or  compromise 
by  installing  a  temporary  check  to  cor- 
rosion may  be  eliminated.  It  does 
seem  more  like  common  sense  to  fore- 
see and  avoid  the  trouble  in  the  first 
place  than  to  depend  upon  introducing 


some  costly  corrective  measures  when 
trouble  comes. 

Bridgeport  Experience    In  the 

early 

days  the  brass  was  melted  in  cruci- 
bles, cast  into  shells  and  drawn  into 
pipes  of  the  proper  size.  When  the 
master  caster  conducting  all  the  opera- 
tions of  mixing,  melting,  stirring  and 
pouring  of  the  brass  felt  fit,  and  did  his 
work  well,  and  when  all  the  fabricating 
operations  were  made  in  accordance 
with  the  best  knowledge  of  the  state 
of  the  art,  and  the  annealing  tempera- 
tures and  time  of  annealing  were  just 
right,  the  result  left  nothing  to  be 
desired.  Naturally,  the  quality  of  the 
product  under  such  conditions  de- 
pended upon  a  number  of  personal 
factors. 

Today  the  Bridgeport  Brass  Com- 
pany mixes  the  ingredients  from  syste- 
matically analyzed  stocks  in  carefully 
checked  proportions,  and  melts  them 
in  electric  furnaces  which  automatically 
stir  the  mixture  more  thoroughly  than 
can  the  most  expert  operator. 


Figure  9.       Test     demonstrating     the     ductility 
Bridgeport  Plumrite  Brass  Pipe. 


of 


Figure  10.     Bridgeport  Plumrite  Brass  Pipe  may  be 
bent  or  hammered  cold  without  cracking. 


19 


The  melting  takes  place  in  a  con- 
trolled atmosphere  free  from  contami- 
nation by  gases  of  combustion,  and  the 
pouring  is  accomplished  by  a  simple 
mechanism  which  provides  accurate 
control  even  in  the  hands  of  an  un- 
skilled man. 

From  the  raw  materials  to  the 
finished  product  every  step  is  carried 
out  with  an  astonishing  degree  of  uni- 
formity, controlled  at  every  point  by 
accurate  observations.  Annealing  takes 
place  at  a  definite  temperature  and  for 
a  definite  time.  The  various  drafts  are 
made  in  accordance  with  predeter- 
mined schedules  based  on  extended  re- 
search and  many  years  of  experience. 

The  only  difference  between  Plum- 
rite  brass  pipe  today  and  that  made  in 
the  early  days  is  that  formerly  the 
pipe  was  Plumrite  most  of  the  time, 
while  today  it  is  Plumrite  all  the  time. 


Desirable  Character-     The 
istics   of   Brass  Pipe 


son 


rea- 
f  or 


using 

brass 

pipe  in  fresh  water  supply  systems  is 
to  provide  installations  which  will  last 
as  long  as  the  buildings  of  which  they 
are  a  part.  To  be  wholly  satisfactory 
the  brass  pipe  must  therefore  meet  this 


Figure  11.  A  piece  of  Plumrite  Brass  Pipe  ham- 
mered flat  without  cracking,  demonstrating  ductility 
and  softness. 


requirement.  The  main  factors  which 
determine  the  success  of  brass  pipe 
installation  are: 

1.  Uniform   composition    to    prevent    con- 
centrated electrolytic  action  and  to  dis- 
tribute whatever  corrosion  may  take  place. 

2.  Freedom  from  internal   stresses   due   to 
careless  or  improper  fabricating  methods, 
such    stresses    sooner    or  later   causing 
cracks  known  as  "season  cracks." 

3.  Proper  temper  to  facilitate  bending. 

4.  Proper  composition  to  facilitate  threading. 

5.  Threads  cut  with  sharp  tools  and  joints 
made   up   without   the  use  of  excessive 
quantities  of  "dope." 

6.  High-grade    fittings   with   properly    cut 
threads  and  free  from  mechanical  flaws. 

7.  Provision  for  expansion  and  relief  of  the 
joints  from  excessive  tension. 

Plumrite  is  manufactured  to  meet 
the  above  requirements,  and  to  this 
point  the  manufacturer  can  control  his 
product.  It  is  especially  important, 
however,  that  pipe  installations  be 
made  by  competent  plumbers  or  under 
the  supervision  of  able  technical  ad- 
visers. 


TENSILE  STRENGTH  59400  IB.  PER  SQ.  IN. 


Figure  12.  A  piece  of  Plumrite  Brass  Pipe  cut  into 
four  equal  parts  each  treated  as  shown  above,  demon- 
strating ductility  and  strength.  Elongation  is  45%  in 
one  inch  and  38%  in  two  inches. 


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20 


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Since  the  quality  of  brass  pipe  is  so 
largely  dependent  upon  the  processes 
of  manufacture  and  the  accuracy  and 
effectiveness  of  the  control  of  such 
processes,  it  may  be  of  interest  to  those 
upon  whom  fall  the  responsibility  of 
specifying  brass  pipe  to  know  the  pro- 
cedure adopted  by  the  Bridgeport 
Brass  Company. 

Composition      The  proportions  of 

the  elements  in  brass 

influence  to  a  marked  degree  the  phys- 


ical characteristics  of  the  brass  pipe, 
especially  in  its  workability  and  its 
immunity  from  season  cracking.  Great 
precautions  are  taken  to  control  the 
relative  amounts  of  the  various  in- 
gredients. Each  ingredient  is  weighed 
by  a  separate  operator  and  the  total 
charge  is  then  checked  in  a  final  opera- 
tion, in  which  the  combined  weight  is 
compared  with  the  sum  of  the  com- 
ponent weights.  A  line-up  of  weighing 
machines  is  shown  in  Figure  13. 

To  maintain  the  purity  of  the  metal, 


Figure  13.  A  line  of  weighing  machines  handling  the  ingredients  of  Bridgeport  Plumrite  Brass  Pipe.  Each 
man  has  charge  of  only  one  ingredient  and  has  to  remember  only  one  weight.  In  the  background  are  seen  bins 
which  contain  raw  materials  classified  by  careful  analyses.  It  is  scientific  organization  of  this  end  of  the  casting 
shop  that  insures  an  extraordinarily  high  degree  of  uniformity  in  the  composition  of  Bridgeport  Plumrite  Brass. 


21 


the  operation  of  melting  must  preclude 
the  possibility  of  contamination.  The 
special  electric  furnaces  used  by  the 
Bridgeport  Brass  Company  insure 
against  contamination  during  the  proc- 
ess of  melting,  because  melting  takes 
place  in  an  enclosed  chamber  wherein 
the  atmosphere  is  controlled. 

Mixing  It  is  not  sufficient  to  have 
pure  ingredients  in  the 
proper  proportions,  but  the  mixture 
itself  must  be  intimate  and  uniform 
throughout.  In  other  words,  no  mat- 
ter how  small  a  piece  of  brass  is  taken 
out,  it  must  have  exactly  the  right  pro- 
portions of  the  ingredients,  otherwise 
when  fabricated  into  pipe  it  will  have 
hard  and  soft  spots  resulting  in  electro- 
positive areas.  Good  threading  and 
bending  qualities  and  freedom  from 
season  cracking  and  corrosion  demand 
proper  mixing. 


tinuously,  thus  insuring  a  uniform  and 
intimate  mixture.  In  fact,  it  is  quite 
impossible  to  make  a  more  perfect 
mixture  than  is  produced  in  these 
furnaces. 

Lead  furnishes  an  excellent  means 
of  checking  the  perfection  of  the  mix- 
ture because,  when  mixed  with  copper 
and  zinc  by  crucible  methods  to  form 
brass,  it  is  present  in  particles  of  vari- 
able size,  non-uniformly  distributed, 
and  tends  to  settle  to  the  bottom. 
There  is  only  a  small  amount  of  lead 
in  Plumrite  Brass,  and  the  mixture  is 
so  thorough  that  it  is  not  easily  dis- 
tinguished in  a  photo-micrograph.  Con- 
sequently, to  demonstrate  the  thor- 
oughness of  the  mixing  abilities  of 
Bridgeport  furnaces,  a  sample  of 
Ledrite  Brass,*  high-lead  brass,  is 
enlarged  by  the  photo-micrograph 
shown  in  Fig.  14.  The  little  black 
dots  are  the  lead. 


Bridgeport  furnaces  are  designed  to         Plumrite  brass  is  shown  by  the  photo- 
stir  the  metal  automatically  and  con-     micrograph  in  Figure  15.    Its  lead  con- 


Figure  14.  Photo-micrograph  of  Bridgeport  Led- 
rite Brass.  The  black  dots  indicate  the  fine  subdivision 
and  the  uniform  distribution  of  the  lead  and  in  this  way 
prove  the  superior  mixing  qualities  of  the  Bridgeport 
electric  furnace. 


Figure  15.  Photo-micrograph  of  Bridgeport  Plum- 
rite  Brass  made  from  a  piece  of  pipe  and  snowing  the 
grain  in  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  pipe. 
Enlargement  75  diameters. 


22 


Figure  16.      Pouring  billets  for 
Plumrite  Brass  Pipe. 


Figure  17.     Removing  Plumrite 
brass  billets  from  molds. 


23 


Figure  18.  The  Bridgeport  Brass  Company  was  the  pioneer  in  the  successful  utilization  of  the  electric  furnace 
for  the  commercial  melting  of  brass.  One  of  the  basic  reasons  for  the  high  degree  of  uniformitv  maintained  in 
Bridgeport  Plumnte  Brass  Pipe  is  due  to  the  superior  results  obtained  with  properly  designed  electric  furnaces 


Figure  19.     Taking  a  cut  off  Plumrite  billets  to  assure  flawless  surface  in  finished  pipe;   finished  billets  at  left 

rough  billets  at  right. 


Company 


24 


Figure  20.     Plumrite  billets  entering  the  heating  furnace  on  the  way  to  the  piercing  machine. 


Figure  21.  A  hot  Plumrite  billet  has  just  left  the  heating  furnace  shown  in  Figure  20  and  is  about  to  enter 
the  piercing  machine,  where  it  will  be  subjected  to  the  cross-rolling  action  of  three  rolls  placed  at  an  angle  to  the 
axis  of  the  billet  and  in  such  a  way  that  the  point  of  contact  describes  a  spiral  drawing  the  billet  forward.  Just 
as  the  billet  leaves  the  rolls  it  encounters  a  hardened  point  over  which  it  is  forced  to  travel,  the  function  of  which 
is  to  open  up  the  billet  and  form  it  into  a  tube. 


25 


Figure  22.  The  pierced  Plumrite  tube  is  seen  emerging  from  the  rolls  and  passing  over  the  rod  which  carries 
the  piercing  point.  One  of  the  points  which  has  been  removed  for  repair  is  shown  lying  on  a  bench  in  the  left 
foreground.  Finished  tubes  ready  to  go  to  the  tube  drawbenches  are  shown  in  the  right  foreground. 


tent  is  only  0.35  per  cent.  Care  must 
be  exercised  in  maintaining  the  proper 
amount  of  lead  because  too  little  lead 
impairs  the  free-cutting  qualities  of  the 
pipe  in  the  threading  operation,  and 
too  much  lead  will  cause  season 
cracking. 

Sampling  To  insure  correctness 
and  uniformity  of  mix- 
ture, samples  are  taken  of  every  heat 
and  tested  before  the  heat  is  started 
on  the  cycle  of  fabricating  operations. 

Pouring      The  melted  brass,  when  it 

has    reached    the    proper 

temperature    is    poured    into    special 

*  Ledrite  Brass  is  a  Bridgeport  product  developed 
especially  for  rod  used  in  automatic  screw  machines. 
By  systematic  testing  of  every  heat  it  is  kept  true  to 
mixture. 


molds  held  in  definite  position  with 
relation  to  the  spout  of  the  furnace. 
The  various  mechanical  arrangements 
are  such  that  a  man  can  control  the 
operation  of  pouring  perfectly  and  pro- 
duce uniform  results  day  in  and  day 
out.  The  various  factors  entering  into 
the  manipulation  of  the  pouring  stream 
in  relation  to  the  mold  have  an  im- 
portant bearing  on  the  quality  of  the 
casting.  If  the  casting  is  not  free  from 
mechanical  imperfections  trouble  will 
follow  in  the  subsequent  operations. 

Piercing  The  brass  is  cast  into  solid 
billets,  from  which  cylin- 
drical shells  are  made  by  piercing  a 
hole  along  the  axis  of  the  billet.  In 
order  to  insure  a  surface  on  the  finished 


26 


pipe  free  from  mechanical  defects,  the 
surface  of  the  billet  must  be  prepared 
before  the  piercing  operation  is  begun. 
Two  processes  are  employed  by  the 
Bridgeport  Brass  Company. 

1.  Heating  the  billet  to  the  plastic  tem- 
perature and  forcing  it  through  the  die 
of  an  extrusion  machine. 

2.  Placing  the  billet  in  a  lathe  and  remov- 
ing the  surface  with  a  cutting  tool. 

The  two  methods  are  equally  good 
when  properly  performed. 

The  piercing  operation  is  both  inter- 
esting and  rather  spectacular.  Billets 
are  heated  to  the  plastic  temperature 
in  a  furnace,  as  shown  in  Figure  20. 
They  then  pass  to  the  piercing  ma- 
chine. The  working  parts  of  this  very 
interesting  machine  consist  of  two 
power-driven  rolls  mounted  at  an  angle 
to  one  another,  their  surfaces  having 
the  form  of  the  frustrums  of  two  cones. 
Just  below  and  between  these  two  rolls 
is  a  small  idler  roll.  The  billet  passes 


between  the  three  and  is  drawn  in  by 
the  helical  action  of  the  three  rolls 
which  gives  it  a  powerful  forward  mo- 
tion, forcing  it  against  a  projectile-like 
steel  point  carried  on  the  end  of  a  long 
rod  which  rotates  at  the  same  time. 
Figure  21  shows  a  billet  entering 
the  machine,  while  Figure  22  shows 
the  tube  issuing  from  the  other  end  of 
it.  Pierced  billets  may  be  seen  in  the 
foreground  at  the  right. 

Drawing  From  the  piercing  mill, 
and  after  pickling,  the 
tubes  go  to  the  draw  benches.  Before 
a  tube  can  be  drawn,  one  end  must  be 
made  slightly  smaller  in  diameter  so 
that  it  can  be  inserted  through  the  die 
of  the  draw  bench  and  gripped  on  the 
other  side.  This  end  reduction  is 
called  " pointing"  and  is  illustrated  in 
Figure  23.  The  pointed  tube  is 
then  inserted  through  a  suitable  die 
and  a  plug  placed  inside  of  it,  as  shown 


Figure  23.     Pointing  Plumrite  Brass  Pipe  by  hammering  one  end  to  reduce  its  diameter  so  that  it  can  be 

inserted  into  the  die  of  the  draw  bench. 


27 


Figure  24.  Drawing  pipe.  At  the  right  a  pipe  is  seen  partially  through  the  die.  The  inside  dimensions  and 
the  shape  of  the  pipe  are  maintained  by  a  tapered  plug  held  in  the  mouth  of  the  die  by  the  rod  seen  extending 
from  the  end  of  the  pipe.  It  is  supported  near  the  end  of  the  pipe  by  a  bushing.  The  power  for  drawing  is  supplied 
by  a  long  piston  working  in  a  cylinder.  As  soon  as  a  batch  of  pipe  has  been  passed  through  the  draw  bench,  it  is 
picked  up  by  a  crane  and  deposited  in  the  annealing  department. 


Figure  25.  A  batch  of  Plumrite  pipes  issuing  from  a  continuous  annealing  furnace.  The  method  by  which 
the  conveying  rolls  are  driven  is  plainly  shown  in  the  machine  just  back  of  the  one  in  the  foreground.  The  Plumrite 
pipes  here  shown  are  just  about  to  be  dumped  into  the  pickle  which  is  accomplished  by  the  operator  in  the  back- 
ground. The  temperature  of  the  furnace  and  the  speed  of  travel  through  them  is  so  chosen,  that  the  mechanical 
strains  from  the  drawing  operation  are  equalized  without  detriment  to  the  physical  properties  of  the  pipe. 


28 


Figure  26.     A  batch   of  Plumrite    pipe  being  removed  from  the  pickle  to  be  returned  to  the  drawbenches  for 

the  next  draw. 


Figure  27.     An  hydraulic  test  of  1,000  pounds  per  square  inch  is  applied  to  each  piece  of  Plumrite  Pipe. 

•B(BHHBBMBBHH«BHS8&   JjEJCQ^Pi^Jfi    ^  iMr«*;ii  r*  *•,-••••'  •«•.  ^j:.  tioo  fj 


29 


in  Figure  24.  The  grip  of  the  draw 
bench,  which  may  be  operated  either 
by  hydraulic,  electric  or  mechanical 
power,  draws  the  tube  through  the 
die  and  over  the  plug,  reducing  its 
diameter  and  its  wall  thickness  by 
a  certain  specified  amount  and  at  a 
definite  rate.  One  of  the  important 
elements  in  this  process  is  the 
use  of  special  lubricating  means 
and  specially  designed  dies,  both  of 
which  factors  affect  the  amount  of 
stress  to  which  the  metal  is  subjected, 
which  in  turn  affects  the  properties  of 
the  finished  pipe.  This  entire  opera- 
tion is  performed  cold. 

The  Bridgeport  Brass  Company 
maintains  a  large  research  department 
and  control  laboratory,  one  of  the 
functions  of  which  is  to  develop  and 
control  the  quality  of  these  lubricants, 
also  the  quality  and  accuracy  of  the 
dies,  so  as  to  maintain  uniform  results 
at  all  times. 


Annealing  and     After  each  draft 
^~.       '     T~I  the  tubes  are  de- 

FlCKling  iivered  to  continu- 
ous annealing  fur- 
naces held  at  constant  temperature, 
the  tubes  traveling  through  the  fur- 
naces at  a  definite  speed.  In  Figure 
25  a  set  of  tubes  on  the  conveyor 
has  just  emerged  from  the  furnace  and  is 
ready  for  pickling.  Figure  26  shows 
a  bundle  of  tubes  being  lifted  from  the 
pickle  to  be  carried  to  the  draw 
benches  for  the  next  operation.  This 
operation  of  annealing  is  of  the  great- 
est importance,  since  it  has  a  marked 
effect  on  the  distribution  of  stresses  in 
the  walls  of  the  tube  and  is  the  pre- 
ventive of  what  is  known  as  "season 
cracking." 

The  importance  of  proper  annealing 


350C 


450° 


550° 

TEMPERATURE 


650° 


750° 


Figure  28.  Diagram  showing  effect  of  annealing 
temperature  upon  physical  properties  for  brass  for  a 
given  composition. 


Figure  29.  A  recording  pyrometer  which  auto- 
matically records  the  temperature  of  a  group  of  anneal- 
ing furnaces.  By  means  of  this  instrument,  an  accurate 
record  is  kept  of  each  batch  of  metal  so  that  the  control 
laboratory  can  always  trace  the  history  of  samples 
taken  for  the  purpose  of  controlling  mill  operations. 


30 


cannot  be  over-estimated.  Bridgeport 
Brass  Company  has  studied  the  an- 
nealing operations  with  respect  to  tem- 
perature, rate  of  heating  and  cooling, 
and  as  a  result  of  these  studies  has 
formulated  exact  specifications  cover- 
ing both  these  factors.  In  Figure 
28  the  result  of  experiments  on  a 
certain  alloy  are  shown  graphically. 
From  this  diagram  it  is  seen  that  the 
annealing  temperatures  affect  vitally 
all  the  physical  properties  of  the  metal, 
and  when  properly  controlled  certain 
desired  properties  can  be  obtained. 

The  temperature  of  the  annealing 
furnaces  is  measured  by  electric  pyro- 
meters, the  indicating  instruments 
being  used  by  the  operators  for  making 
heat  adjustments,  while  the  recording 
instruments  serve  to  provide  an  exact 
history  and  permanent  record  of  any 
given  batch.  In  Figure  29  is  shown 
one  of  the  recording  instruments. 


Testing  After  straightening,  the 
ends  of  each  pipe  are  sawed 
off,  resulting  in  a  variety  of  pipe  lengths. 
This  is  an  advantage  as  well  as  an 
economy  because  there  is  less  waste 
of  labor  and  material  in  cutting  up 
and  threading  pipe  on  one  job.  While 
users  often  specify  given  lengths  of 
pipe  it  is  recommended  that  "random" 
lengths  within  reasonable  limits  be 
accepted,  since  it  enables  the  selection 
of  pieces  without  the  attendant  waste 
of  time  and  material  so  frequently 
resulting  from  carrying  out  an  instal- 
lation with  only  one  specified  length  of 
pipe  available. 

Every  piece  is  next  subjected  to  an 
hydraulic  pressure  test  of  1000  Ib.  per 
sq.  in.,  as  shown  in  Figure  27.  In 
addition  to  the  pressure  test  each 
piece  of  pipe,  just  before  delivery  to  the 
shipping  department,  is  examined  by  an 
expert  and  checked  for  general  quality. 


Figure  30.     Bridgeport  Plumrite  Brass  Pipe  is  always  in  stock  in  a  great  variety  of  sizes. 


31 


/""' 
' 


/"*'<     (''{""'•*      "'7\         /""'•       ''/,/''       "V      "'/:    T         /'"'< 


Occasionally  brass  pipe  has  been 
known  to  fail  after  installation  due  to 
the  occurrence  of  spontaneous  longi- 
tudinal cracks  which  extend  clear 
through  the  wall  of  the  pipe,  causing 
it  to  leak.  This  action  is  due  to  the 
existence  of  internal  stresses  set  up 
within  the  wall  of  the  tube  during  the 
process  of  manufacture.  The  cause 
and  nature  of  these  stresses  has  only 
recently  been  determined. 

Unsuitable  materials  and  unskilful 
methods  of  manufacture  are  the  pri- 
mary causes  of  this  trouble.  Specifica- 
tions which  are  sufficiently  complete 
to  insure  brass  pipe  that  can  be  guar- 
anteed against  season  cracking  cannot 
be  written  except  by  men  having  spe- 


cial training  in  brass  manufacture,  and 
data  such  as  is  required  is  not  available 
to  those  outside  of  the  industry. 
Therefore,  engineers  and  architects 
buying  brass  pipe  should  go  to  manu- 
facturers who  know  the  brass  pipe 
business  and  who  will  guarantee  their 
product  against  season  cracking. 

Fortunately,  it  is  possible  to  test 
brass  pipe  after  its  manufacture  is 
completed,  and  determine  whether  or 
not  internal  stresses  sufficient  to  pro- 
duce season  cracking  are  present.  While 
Bridgeport  methods  are  such  as  prac- 
tically to  preclude  the  existence  of  in- 
ternal strains,  all  Bridgeport  pipe  is 
actually  tested  for  season  cracking 
stresses  before  shipment. 


Figure  31.     Specimen  of  hard  brass  pipe  that  season-cracked  in  service. 


Figure  32.     Less  than  15  minutes  immersion  in  mercurous  nitrate  solution  caused  this  hard  pipe  to  season  crack. 


32 


To  give  rules  for  designing  hot  and 
cold  water  distribution  systems,  or  even 
to  discuss  the  relative  merits  of  different 
methods  of  distribution  is  beyond  the 
scope  of  the  present  treatise.  There 
are,  however,  certain  details  of  water 
service  piping  that  merit  special  atten- 
tion wherever  brass  pipe  is  to  be  used 
or  considered. 

Pipe  Size  The  determination  of 
pipe  sizes  for  water  ser- 
vice mains,  risers  and  branches  is  more 
often  a  matter  of  experience  than  of 
scientific  calculation  of  friction  and 
flow.  Each  plumbing  engineer  has 
his  own  methods  of  arriving  at  the 
result,  and  almost  without  exception 
the  practice  is  based  upon  experience 
with  iron  and  steel  pipe. 

The  first  step  in  pipe  size  determina- 
tion is  to  estimate  the  water  con- 
sumption of  the  building,  allotting  the 
proper  quota  to  each  fixture.  Naturally 
it  is  impossible  to  assign  a  definite 
consumption  to  each  fixture  of  a  bath- 
room or  kitchen  that  will  correctly 
represent  the  actual  requirements,  un- 
less the  choice  is  tempered  with  good 
judgment  based  upon  local  conditions 
of  use. 

One  of  the  leading  plumbing  design- 
ers in  New  York  City  uses  the  figures 
shown  in  Table  IV  for  his  first  estimate 
of  water  requirements  and  then,  to 
allow  for  the  fact  that  all  fixtures  are 
not  used  simultaneously,  divides  by 
three  to  get  the  actual  flow  carried  by 
the  service  pipes  in  public  buildings 
and  hotels;  in  private  residences  the 
same  figures  are  divided  by  four. 


TABLE  IV 

WATER  CONSUMPTION  OF  SUPPLY 

FIXTURES 


Fixture 

Service 

Consump- 
tion Gal. 
Per  Hr. 

Maxi- 
mum Flow 
Gal.  Per 

Min.* 

Basin 

Hot  and  Cold 

10 

5 

Bathtub 

«       «       K 

30 

10 

Shower 

11       n       a 

40 

10 

Toilet 

Cold 

7 

5 

Flushometer 

" 

7 

60 

Urinal 

*  * 

6 

5 

Sink 

Hot  and  Cold 

10 

10 

Washtub 

«       «       « 

10 

10 

Slop-sink 

«       n       it 

20 

10 

*  This  column  taken  from  article  by  T.  N.  Thomson, 
"Plumber's  Trade  Journal,  "June  15,  1922,  Page  949. 


Allowance  for 
Corrosion 


On  account  of  cor- 
rosion which  clogs 
iron  and  steel  pipes 
and  reduces  the 

flow  even  to  the  point  of  plugging  the 
pipe  entirely,  sizes  smaller  than  %  inch 
are  never  used.  Therefore,  in  iron  and 
steel  pipe  installations  }^-inch  pipe  is 
used  for  connection  for  practically  all 
fixtures  except  bathtubs,  slop-sinks 
and  flushometers. 

When  it  comes  to  the  branches  that 
supply  a  number  of  fixtures,  practice 
again  seldom  permits  the  use  of  pipe 
smaller  than  %  inch.  In  fact,  if  there 
are  more  than  three  fixtures  on  the 
branch  there  should  be  1-inch  pipe  or 
larger. 

Brass  pipe  has  the  great  advantage 
of  not  requiring  any  allowance  for 
reduction  of  area  by  corrosion.  The 
pipe  can  be  chosen  wholly  on  the  basis 
of  carrying  capacity,  because  it  will 
retain  its  initial  capacity  throughout 
its  life. 


33 


Brass  Pipe  Size     Few  plumbing 

engineers    have 

ever  taken  full  advantage  of  the  sus- 
tained carrying  capacity  of  brass  pipe, 
but  some  leading  engineers  have  a 
rough  rule  by  which  they  design  for 
steel  and  then  use  the  next  size  smaller 
for  brass. 

One  of  the  largest  life  insurance 
companies  maintains  an  engineering 
department  to  study,  criticise  and  pass 
on  specifications  for  buildings  for  the 
construction  of  which  it  makes  loans. 
This  company  requires  brass  for  hot 
water  and  all  concealed  work  except  in 
unusual  cases.  If  iron  or  steel  are 
used  the  pipe  must  be  one  size  larger 
than  brass.  Brass  pipe  as  small  as 
•^3  inch  is  permitted  for  fixture  con- 
nections and  branches  where  its  carry- 
ing capacity  is  sufficient;  but  no  iron 
pipe  smaller  than  J^  inch  is  permitted. 

In  choosing  the  size  for  mains  and 
risers  in  large  buildings,  the  friction 
loss  should  be  taken  into  account.  At 
no  point  in  the  system  should  the 
pressure  be  less  than  8  Ib.  per  square 
inch.  For  flushometers  it  should  not 
be  less  than  10  Ib.  per  square  inch  and 
preferably  not  less  than  15  Ib.  per 
square  inch.  The  loss  in  feet  of  static 
head  for  different  sizes  of  clean  iron 
pipe  and  different  discharge  rates  is 
given  in  Figure  34.  These  figures 
can  be  translated  into  pressure  by 
using  the  conversion  factor  4.33  Ib. 
per  square  inch  =  10  ft.  head. 

The  size  of  riser  may  be  easily 
determined  for  the  first  approximation 
by  making  a  rough  diagram  as  in 
Figure  33,  showing  the  floors  and 
entering  the  average  quantity  of  water 
in  gallons  per  minute  at  each  branch. 


10th 


Consider  a  10-story  building  with  a 
branch  at  each  floor  and  each  branch 
above  the  first  floor  requiring  a  flow  of 
15  gallons  per  minute.  The  flow  at 
each  branch,  beginning  at  the  top,  is 
entered  as  shown  in  the  diagram  and 
the  sum  of  the  flows  in  the  branches  is 
shown  in  the  riser  at  each  floor. 

Assuming  a  city  water  pressure  of 
70  Ib.  per  square  inch  in  the  basement 
and  a  height  of  115  feet  to  the  highest 
fixture,  115  feet  represents  a  static  head 
of  0.433  times  115  =  50  Ib.  per  square 
inch.  Therefore,  only  20  Ib.  per  square 
inch  is  available  at  the  top  floor,  and  if 
a  pressure  of  at  least  15  Ib.  per  square 
inch  is  required,  not  more 
than  5  Ib.  per  square 
inch  or  11.5  feet  in  friction 
can  be  lost;  that  is,  not 
more  than  10  feet  per  100 
ft.  of  riser. 

Referring  to  Figure  33 
it  is  found  that  185 
gallons  per  minute  with 
a  loss  of  10  feet  corres- 
ponds to  3-inch  pipe. 
Therefore,  the  riser  starts 
at  3  inch.  Following  the 
10-foot  friction  line  verti- 
cally, it  crosses  the  23/2- 
inch  pipe  size  at  115 
gallons  per  minute.  There 
fore,  3 -inch  pipe  continues 
to  the  third  floor  where  it 
is  changed  to  2^/2  inch. 
In  the  same  way  the  10-foot 


4th 


3rd 


Figure  33.  Schematic  layout  for 
determining  riser  pipe  sizes.  The  flow 
in  gallons  per  minute  at  each  floor  is 
entered  and  the  gallons  per  minute 
in  the  riser  is  summed  up  just  below 
each  floor  branch.  With  this  dia- 
gram and  the  charts  shown  in  figure 
32  the  pipe  sizes  can  be  written 
in  with  little  trouble. 


2nd 


M35 


1st 


1   0 


34 


friction  line  is  followed  from  one  pipe 
size  to  the  next,  the  change  being 
made  at  that  point  in  the  riser  where 
the  flow  is  less  than  that  indicated  by 
the  diagram. 

The  sizes  determined  from  the  fric- 
tion-flow diagram  are  ample  for 
brass  but  with  iron  some  allowance 
should  be  made  for  reduction  of  area, 
and  increase  in  friction  due  to  corro- 
sion. Good  practice  would  allow  a 
full  size  larger  all  along  the  line, 
namely:  3^  inch  for  3,  3  inch  for 
for  2  and  \]/2  for 


for  frictional  resistance.     The  following 
sizes  are  worked  out  by  this  rule. 


Elbows  When  water  is  forced  to 
make  a  sharp  turn,  such  as 
in  an  elbow  or  T>  there  is  a  friction 
loss  that  may  be  expressed  as  an 
additional  length  of  pipe.  A  rule  given 
by  Walter  S.  Timmis  in  the  Journal  of 
American  Society  of  Heating  and  Ven- 
tilating Engineers,  May  1922,  page 
402,  multiplies  the  diameter  in  inches 
by  40  and  divides  by  12  to  get 
the  equivalent  feet  of  straight  pipe 
which  can  be  figured  in  the  usual  way 


Pipe  sizes 

% 

1 

1& 

VA 

2 

VA 

8.3 

3 

3^ 

4 

Equivalent 
length,  straight 
pipe  in  feet 

2.5 

3.3 

4.1 

5 

5 

10 

11.7 

13.3 

Joints  If  a  pipmg  installation  is  to 
give  good  service,  not  only 
must  the  best  materials  be  chosen,  but 
the  system  must  be  correctly  designed 
and  properly  installed.  This  is  even 
more  true  of  brass  than  of  steel, 
because  the  permanent  character  of 
brass  makes  it  possible  to  eliminate  the 
repairs  altogether  by  careful  work  at 
the  start. 

Couplings  between  floors  should  be 
avoided  wherever  possible,  all  joints 
being  made  at  the  branch  connections. 
Brass  installations  should  be  thorough- 
ly tested  for  defective  fittings  before 
the  pipe  is  closed  in.  It  is  good  prac- 
tice to  carry  excess  pressure  on  the 
system  as  the  work  progresses. 


FRICTION  HEAD  IN  FEET  IN  CLEAN  PIPES 
10  20  30  40 


FRICTION  HEAD  IN  FEET  IN  CLEAN  PIPES 
10  20  30  40 


20  30 

LENGTH  100  FT. 


30 
100  FT. 


400 


Figure  34.  Friction-head  curves  for  use  in  calculating  the  carrying  capacity  of  pipes.  The  head  lost  is  given 
by  the  horizontal  scale  in  feet  per  hundred  feet.  The  velocity  of  the  water  in  the  pipe  is  given  by  the  V-curves, 
V=10'  means  velocity  10  feet  per  second.  Example:  20  gallon  per  minute  through  1-inch  pipe  gives  a  loss  of  32 
feet  per  100  feet;  in  IJ^-inch  pipe  11  feet  per  100  feet.  The  velocity  in  1-inch  pipe  is  about  8.1  feet  per  second 
and  in  IJ^-inch  pipe  about  5.2  feet  per  second  (Chart  from  Coffin,  Graphical  Solution  of  Hydraulic  Problems). 


35 


Expansion  To  avoid  troubles  due 
to  leaky  fittings  and 
joints,  great  care  must  be  exercised  to 
provide  for  expansion  and  contraction, 
especially  in  hot- water  systems.  Plum- 
rite  brass  pipe  expands  0.0133  inch 
per  100  feet  for  every  degree  Fahren- 
heit change  of  temperature.  In  hot- 
water  systems  it  is  well  to  allow  for 
expansion  2J4  inches  for  every  100  feet 
of  pipe,  and  in  cold  water  piping 
approximately  %  mcn  Per  100  feet- 

Expansion  in  risers  is  absorbed  by 
using  loops  in  the  pipe.  For  hot  water 
about  every  fourth  floor  should  be 
provided  with  a  loop  as  shown  in 
Figure  35.  Such  loops  are  preferably 
made  by  bending  the  pipe  itself  to  form 


16th_FLO_OR 
SUPPORT 


IR  _J_6lh_[.y!PR 


12th  FLOOR 

'  SUPPORT 
12th  FLOOR 

SUPPORT                         J 
Oth  FLOOR 

:  SUPPORT 
8th  FLOOR 

4th  FLOOR 

SUPPORT 
4th  FLOOR 

•"*•}  SUPPORT 

5 

f 


Figure  35.  Brass  pipe  risers  should  be  provided 
with  expansion  members  at  intervals  depending  upon 
the  temperature  changes;  for  hot  water  pipe  every 
fourth  floor  will  be  found  adequate.  The  loops  indicated 
are  from  3  to  5  feet  long.  The  method  of  support 
where  possible  should  be  in  the  horizontal  leg  of  the 
loop  and  supports  should  be  located  on  alternate 
sides  of  a  loop  so  as  to  confine  the  expansion  between 
supports  and  prevent  its  accumulating  along  the  line. 
Where  it  is  necessary  to  employ  supports  on  the 
vertical  run,  a  support  should  be  applied  between 
every  pair  of  loops. 


a  U  from  3  to  5  feet  deep  with  a  radius 
of  9^2  inches.  The  supports  are  alter- 
nately one  side  and  then  the  other  of 
the  loop,  so  as  to  confine  the  expansion 
between  any  two  successive  points  of 
support,  and  thus  prevent  accumula- 
tion of  expansion  along  the  line. 
Another  method  is  to  support  the  pipe 
between  loops  by  means  of  wrought 
iron  clamps. 

Where  branches  are  taken  off,  pro- 
vision must  be  made  for  free  move- 
ment of  riser  and  branch.  This  is 
best  done  by  a  three-plane  bend  as 
shown  in  Figure  36.  Such  a  bend  can 
absorb  expansion  from  any  direction 
without  setting  up  any  serious  strains 
in  the  fittings. 

Where  branches  are  taken  off  in  a 
trough,  expansion  and  contraction  are 
prevented  from  causing  damage  by 
making  connections  so  as  to  start  the 
branch  clear  of  the  bottom  of  the 
trough,  allowing  it  to  sag  into  contact 
with  the  bottom  at  some  distance  from 
the  connection.  Then  when  the  riser 
sinks  it  can  do  so  without  meeting  the 
resistance  of  the  branch  pressing  against 
the  bottom  of  the  trough .  See  Figure  37 . 


Figure  36.  Details  of  expansion  loops.  Expansion 
of  the  riser  itself  is  taken  up  in  loops  as  described  in 
figure  35.  Branches  taken  off  from  risers  in  hot  water 
systems  should  also  provide  for  expansion  in  such  a 
way  as  to  relieve  all  strains  on  joints  and  fittings. 
Branches  taken  off  with  a  three-plane  bend,  made  by 
bending  a  single  piece  of  pipe,  or  with  elbows  and 
nipples,  are  free  to  move  in  any  direction  without 
strain. 


36 


Figure  37.  Where  extra  precautions  should  be 
taken  to  guard  against  damage  from  leaks,  branches 
may  be  installed  as  here  shown.  The  trough  and  well 
are  lined  with  lead  and  provided  with  a  drain  and  drip; 
the  drip  pipe  leading  to  the  basement  and  terminating 
in  a  sink  as  shown.  Water  is  prevented  from  crawling 
along  the  pipe  by  the  umbrella  which  is  attached  to  the  pipe  and  the  sleeve  through  which  the  pipe  enters  the 
well  makes  a  watertight  joint  with  the  trough  so  that  no  leak  can  occur  at  that  point.  The  branch  is  taken 
off  at  a  point  somewhat  above  the  bottom  of  the  trough,  allowing  the  branch  to  sag  by  its  own  weight  into 
contact  with  the  trough,  then  it  is  free  to  go  and  come  with  riser  without  setting  up  any  strains.  Drain  pipes 
lead  to  a  sink  in  the  basement,  where  each  drip  is  provided  with  a  water  seal  and  a  drip  check  as  shown  in  the 
detail,  A.  By  means  of  these  drips  the  engineer  can  tell  at  a  glance  just  where  any  leaky  valve  or  fitting  is  located. 


II  RISERS 


DRIPS  FROM  RISERS 

CONNECTED  TO 
EMPTYING  MANIFOLD 


-4  HEADER 


ECCENTRIC  BUSHING 


EMPTYING  VALVE 

CONNECTED  WITH 

EMPTYING  MANIFOLD 


DRIP  FROM  RETURN 
CONNECTED  TO  MANIFOLD  1 


DRIPS  FROM  RETURNS 
CONNECTED  TO  MANIFOLD 


Figure  38.  Heater  connections  to  avoid  expansion  trouble  and  provide  for  maintenance  of  the  system  with 
least  interruption.  It  will  be  noted  that  expansion  in  the  header  between  the  boiler  connections  is  perfectly 
swivelled  at  the  elbows,  one  underneath  the  header  and  one  on  top  of  the  boiler.  The  risers  may  lead  from  the 
header,  either  vertically  as  shown  or  horizontally  where  headroom  will  not  permit  the  vertical  arrangement. 
The  valves  are  so  arranged  that  the  heater  may  be  disconnected  entirely  from  the  system  without  interfering 
with  the  operation  of  other  heaters  connected  with  the  same  header.  Also  each  riser  may  be  disconnected  and 
drained  without  affecting  any  other  part  of  the  system.  All  drips  from  risers  and  returns  are  led  to  a  drip 
manifold  at  some  point  convenient  to  inspection  by  the  operating  engineer. 


37 


Many  people  handle  brass  pipe  in 
the  same  way  as  they  do  iron  and  steel. 
However,  since  brass  pipe  properly 
installed  will  last  as  long  as  the  build- 
ing of  which  it  forms  a  part,  it  is  very 
desirable  to  have  the  installation  not 
limited  in  its  usefulness  by  improper 
handling.  On  general  principles,  brass 
pipe  should  be  handled  more  carefully 
than  iron  and  steel,  because  its  high 
quality  shows  plainly  in  its  appearance, 
especially  when  clean  pipe,  such  as 
Bridgeport  Plumrite,  is  used.  Such  a 
pipe  inspires  a  pride  in  workmanship 
and  is  bound  to  receive  more  careful 
handling  than  a  piece  of  pipe  that  is 
dirty  and  smeared  over  with  paint  and 
grease. 

Gutting  Threads  One  of  the  most 

important  oper- 
ations in  handling  any  pipe  is  the 
cutting  of  the  threads.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  in  brass  pipe  because  the 
joints  must  be  of  the  best  if  full  value 
is  to  be  obtained  from  the  use  of  brass 
pipe.  The  threads  must  be  clean  and 
accurate  so  as  to  make  a  perfect  joint 
from  the  start.  Slight  leaks  will  not 
close  up  by  rusting  as  they  do  in  iron 
and  steel  pipe. 

Brass  pipe  used  in  concealed  work 
may  be  clamped  in  sharp  steel  jaws. 
Where  exposed  work  or  nickel  plated 
pipe  is  concerned,  the  pipe  vise 
should  be  equipped  with  lead  or  wood 
cheeks  which  will  hold  the  pipe  with- 
out scratching  it. 

The  cutting  tools  should  be  sharp, 
and  should  be  used  only  for  brass  pipe. 


It  is  bad  practice  to  use  the  same  tools 
on  brass  and  iron  interchangeably. 

In  some  places  it  is  required  to  cut  a 
thread  sufficiently  long  to  leave  one  or 
more  completed  turns  outside  the  con- 
nection, so  that  it  is  always  possible  to 
tighten  it  up  in  case  of  trouble.  In 
other  cases  it  is  required  that  the 
thread  be  entirely  concealed  by  the 
connection.  The  latter  practice  is  to 
be  recommended  except  in  cases  where 
there  is  inadequate  superintendence  or 
where  the  good  faith  of  the  workman  is 
in  question,  because  it  is  possible  to 
cut  too  few  threads  on  a  pipe  and  when 
the  joint  is  made  up,  there  is  no  way  of 
determining  whether  there  are  enough 
threads  unless  several  turns  are  visible 
from  the  outside. 

Cutting  Pipe  Brass  pipe  is  easy 
to  cut  with  a  metal 
saw  and  the  saw  cut  leaves  a  clean 
edge.  Pipe  cutters  roll  the  edge  of  the 
pipe  inward  and  restrict  its  area. 
Therefore,  the  saw  is  preferable  to  the 
cutter  unless  the  burr  is  reamed  out 
after  the  cut  is  made. 

Making  Up  Joints  Joints  in  brass 

pipe  or  in  any 

pipe  for  that  matter  should  be  avoided 
wherever  possible,  especially  is  this 
true  of  joints  which  employ  plain 
couplings. 

Wherever  it  is  necessary  to  make 
joints,  the  fit  should  be  as  perfect  as 
possible. 

In  order  to  seal  completely  a 
connection  between  threaded  parts, 


38 


some  plumbers  employ  a  mixture  of 
red  and  white  lead.  Sometimes  this 
lead  mixture  is  put  onto  the  pipe  and 
sometimes  it  is  put  onto  the  coupling  or 
female  end  of  the  connection.  Putting 
the  lead  onto  the  pipe  permits  a  thor- 
ough application  and  easy  inspection, 
but  has  the  disadvantage  of  forcing  the 
excess  to  the  outside  where  it  mars  the 
appearance  of  the  pipe.  The  applica- 
tion of  the  lead  mixture  to  the  fitting, 
however,  is  not  to  be  recommended. 
First,  because  it  is  apt  to  be  less  thor- 
ough, and  secondly  the  excess  material 


HOT  FOR  KITCHEN 
&  LAUNDRY  SERVICE 

HOT  FOR 
BATH  SERVICE 

COLO  SUPPLY  TO  BOILER 


Figure  39.  Connections  for  hot  water  boiler  with 
gas  and  range  waterback  heaters.  It  will  be  noted  that 
the  water  inlet  is  from  the  bottom  of  the  boiler  only. 
Where  the  inlet  is  carried  in  from  the  top  cold  water 
sprays  from  the  anti-siphon  hole  into  the  hot  water 
every  time  water  is  drawn  from  the  boiler.  In  above 
arrangement  the  chilling  effect  of  incoming  water  is 
entirely  eliminated  by  connecting  to  the  bottom,  where 
it  enters  directly  into  the  heater  and  into  the  boiler, 
depending  upon  where  the  demand  exists. 

It  will  also  be  noted  that  hot-water  pipes  from  the 
heaters  lead  to  the  top  of  the  boiler.  It  would  be  pre- 
ferable to  connect  these  pipes  directly  to  the  boiler; 
however  such  a  boiler  would  be  special.  In  any  case  the 
friction  through  the  heater  is  so  much  greater  than  di- 
rectly from  the  boiler  that  there  is  no  danger  of  drawing 
cold  water  through  the  heater,  when  there  is  hot 
water  in  the  boiler.  By  this  method  of  connection 
hoc  water  is  available  in  the  shortest  possible  time  after 
heat  has  been  applied.  It  also  gives  the  most  economi- 
cal method  of  producing  and  storing  hot  water. 


is  forced  inside  where  it  hardens  and 
restricts  the  area  of  the  pipe. 

It  is  preferable  to  make  joints  with- 
out any  sealing  material,  such  as  lead 
or  cement.  One  method  which  has 
been  used  with  success  on  many  im- 
portant jobs  employs  a  single  strand  of 
wicking,  lubricated  with  tallow  or  a 
similar  material.  Such  wicking  is 
wound  around  the  pipe  three  or  more 
times,  beginning  one  or  two  threads 


HOT  TO  KITCHEN 
&  LAUNDRY  SERVICE 


STANDARD 
COPPER  BOILER 


Figure  40.  Here  are  shown  methods  of  connecting 
a  hot  water  boiler  with  two  heating  elements,  one  on  the 
same  floor  with  the  boiler  and  the  other  on  the  floor  be- 
low. The  same  arrangement  of  piping  would  apply  if 
a  waterback  in  the  house-heating  boiler  were  also  con- 
nected with  the  same  boiler.  We  would  merely  insert 
the  waterback  in  series  with  the  other  two  heaters. 

The  same  principle  obtains  as  set  forth  in  Figure  39. 
Cold  water  enters  the  bottom  and  hot  water  at  the  top 
of  the  boiler.  In  this  way  hot  water  is  obtained  in  mini- 
mum time  and  cold  water  is  applied  at  the  coldest 
point  in  the  system  so  that  it  does  not  chill  water  that 
has  already  been  heated. 

'    ftritU, 


39 


from  the  end.  A  joint  made  in  this 
way  will  remain  tight  indefinitely. 
Another  method  that  is  used  in  some 
of  the  best  work  is  to  tin  the  threads 
and  solder  the  joint. 

Bends  Properly  made  brass  pipe 
may  be  bent  on  the  job  to 
make  elbows,  expansion  loops  and  for 
other  special  uses.  The  following 
method  has  been  used  successfully  for 
a  number  of  years.  The  pipe  to  be 
bent  is  warmed  slightly  and  filled  with 
sharp  sand  which  also  has  been  heated. 
It  is  then  closed  on  both  ends  and  may 
be  bent,  without  further  heating,  in  a 
pipe  bending  machine,  or  by  hand 
around  a  suitable  form.  The  sand 
will  prevent  the  pipe  from  collapsing 
and  keep  the  opening  uniform  through- 
out. 


Figure  41 .  The  St.  Regis  Hotel,  New  York,  has  perhaps 
the  finest  plumbing  installation  ever  made  in  a  public 
building.  Bridgeport  Plumrite  Brass  Pipe  was  used 
throughout  for  hot  and  cold  water  service.  There  has 
never  been  a  leak  in  the  system  since  the  hotel  opened 
in  1901.  The  piece  of  pipe  here  shown  was  taken  out 
when  an  alteration  was  made  in  1922.  The  surface  has  not  been  touched  in  any  way.  Examination  will  reveal 
full  thickness  of  the  wall,  perfection  of  the  threads  and  the  softness  of  the  pipe  is  evident  from  the  crushing  effect 
of  the  pipe  tongs  which  were  applied  to  it  when  it  was  removed.  The  rough  appearance  of  the  interior  surface 
is  due  to  a  deposit  and  not  to  corrosion. 


'/ 

' 


America  is  just  learning  the  lesson  of 
economic  building.  Up  to  quite  re- 
cently most  building  in  this  country 
was  done  on  the  principle  of  lowest 
first  cost,  or  else  it  was  done  on  the 
basis  of  "the  best  of  everything" 
without  regard  to  cost.  Neither  one 
of  these  systems  is  economically  sound. 
The  best  of  everything  without  regard 
to  cost  is  sometimes  extravagant,  and 
any  structure  that  is  built  on  the  basis 
of  lowest  first  cost  is  bound  to  give  a 
temporary  service  and  result  in  extra- 
ordinarily high  maintenance  and  repair 
cost. 

The  only  economically  sound  prin- 
ciple for  the  choice  of  materials  and 
methods  in  building  construction  is 
that  of  lowest  ultimate  cost,  including 
maintenance,  depreciation  and  repairs. 

Theoretically  the  "One  Horse  Shay" 
was  built  along  the  proper  lines  because 
all  its  structural  elements  were  chosen 
to  give  exactly  the  same  amount  of 
service.  In  practice,  of  course,  we  can 
never  hope  to  attain  the  perfection  of 
the  famous  "One  Horse  Shay."  We 
can,  however,  avoid  limiting  the  useful- 
ness of  the  main  structure  by  the 
installation  of  inferior  details. 

One  of  the  common  mistakes  made 
in  many  high-class  buildings  is  the  use 
of  perishable  materials,  such  as  iron 
and  steel  in  the  water  service  piping 
systems,  where  brass  at  a  slight  extra 
first  cost  would  eliminate  upkeep  and 
damage  due  to  leaks — to  say  nothing 
of  the  tremendous  expense  of  renewal 
which  is  sure  to  take  place  whenever  an 


iron  or  steel-pipe  installation  is  made 
in  a  building,  otherwise  permanent  in 
character. 

Items  of  Cost  In  designing  a  pip- 
ing system  for  hot 
and  cold  .water  service  on  the  basis  of 
lowest  ultimate  cost  or  maximum  re- 
turn on  investment,  the  following  fac- 
tors must  be  considered. 

1.  First  cost  of  pipe  and  fittings. 

2.  Installation  of  pipe  and  fittings. 

3.  Depreciation  and  repairs. 

4.  Cost  of  renewals. 

In  addition  to  these  four  elements, 
consideration  must  be  given  to  the 
possibility  of  damage  to  the  building 
and  its  furnishings  as  the  result  of 
rusty  water,  leaks  or  complete  failures. 

First  Cost  First  cost  of  pipe  and 
fittings  is  determined  by 
cost  of  materials  and  the  quantity 
required.  The  relative  cost  of  iron 
and  brass  pipe  varies  with  the  market 
conditions. 

As  was  explained  on  page  34  brass 
pipe,  not  suffering  any  loss  of  carrying 
capacity  due  to  corrosion,  can  be  used 
in  smaller  sizes  than  either  iron  or  steel. 
If  in  figuring  an  installation,  credit  is 
given  for  the  difference  of  size  of  pipe, 
a  substantial  saving  in  first  cost  will 
be  accomplished.  The  best  way  to 
visualize  the  difference  in  first  cost 
between  various  kinds  of  pipe  is  to 
figure  an  actual  installation,  because 
each  installation  will  give  a  somewhat 


41 


Figure  42.  The  Sherry  Hotel,  one  of  the  famous 
places  in  latter-day  New  York,  was  built  in  1896 
and  equipped  with  Bridgeport  Brass  Pipe.  In  1919 
it  was  remodelled  by  Guaranty  Trust  Company  into 
a  commercial  building  which  involved  considerable 
alteration  in  the  plumbing  arrangements.  The 
brass  pipe  removed  in  the  course  of  these  altera- 
tions was  found  to  be  in  such  perfect  condition  that 
it  was  actually  re-installed  in  the  new  construction. 
The  sample  of  pipe  illustrated  shows  the  perfect 
condition  inside  and  outside.  This  sample  is  repro- 
duced exactly  as  it  came  from  the  job  after  23 
years  of  service. 


Architects, 

McKim, 

Mead& 

White. 

Engineer, 

Mortimer 

Foster  of 

McKim, 

Mead  & 

White. 


Architects,  Cross  &  Cross 
Engineer,  Clyde  R.  Place 


42 


different  result  depending  upon  the 
design  and  the  character  of  the  service 
required. 

For  purposes  of  illustration,  a  14- 
story  bank  and  office  building  designed 
for  lower  New  York  and  costing  ap- 
proximately $850,000  has  been  chosen. 
The  plumbing  system  is  of  the  gravity 
type  which  employs  house  tanks  and 
pumps.  It  comprises  142  toilets  and 
corresponding  number  of  other  fixtures, 
and  the  piping  represents  a  total 
investment  of  approximately  $3,200, 
while  the  same  system  of  piping 
equipped  with  brass  pipe  and  making 
allowance  for  the  superior  carrying 
capacity  of  brass  pipe  by  using  a  size 
smaller  throughout  will  cost  approxi- 
mately $4,300. 

The  brass  pipe  in  this  case  costs 
$1,100  or  approximately  35  per  cent, 
more  than  the  galvanized  iron  or  steel. 
The  water  service  is  the  most  impor- 
tant element  in  the  successful  operation 
of  the  building.  To  get  a  leak-proof 
permanent  job  for  an  expenditure  of  a 
little  more  than  one-tenth  of  1  per  cent, 
of  the  cost  of  the  building  seems  like  an 
excellent  investment. 

Installation  Cost   Theoretically 

there  should  be 

a  difference  in  installation  cost  of  iron, 
steel  and  brass  in  favor  of  the  cheaper 
pipe.  Brass  pipe  should  cost  a  little 
more  to  install  than  iron  or  steel, 
because  its  superior  quality  and  ap- 
pearance should  inspire  better  work- 
manship on  the  part  of  the  plumber. 
Then  too,  knowing  that  the  installa- 
tion is  put  in  for  the  life  of  the  building, 
extraordinary  care  should  be  exercised 


to  make  perfect  joints.  The  question 
of  installation  costs  has  been  can- 
vassed among  various  prominent 
plumbing  contractors  and  not  one  was 
found  who  made  any  allowance  for 
extra  labor  to  install  brass. 

Depreciation    Depreciation  and  re- 

~~T~  '  pairs  cannot  be  fig- 

and    Repairs    ured    accurately. 

However,  it  is  safe  to 
say  that  if  the  water  does  not  contain 
ammonia,  nitrates,  nitrites,  etc.,  such 
as  come  from  decaying  vegetable  mat- 
ter, that  properly  installed  brass  pipe 
will  never  require  repairs  and  will  last 
as  long  as  the  building  itself. 

In  1901,  Bridgeport  Plumrite  Brass 
Pipe  was  installed  in  the  St.  Regis 
Hotel,  see  Figure  41.  Recently  the  in- 
stallation was  inspected  and  found  in 
perfect  order.  Mr.  Hahn,  the  President, 
gave  the  Bridgeport  Brass  Company  a 
letter  stating  that  not  one  cent  had  been 
spent  in  repairs,  and  that  no  leaks  had 
developed  during  the  21  years  which 
the  pipe  had  been  installed.  Another 
example  of  the  durability  of  brass  pipe 
is  evidenced  by  experience  in  the  Sherry 
Hotel  see  Figure  42.  Bridgeport  Brass 
Pipe  was  installed  in  this  hotel  in  1896. 
In  1919  the  hotel  was  remodeled  into  a 
commercial  building  for  the  Guaranty 
Trust  Company.  In  the  process  of 
remodeling  much  of  the  piping  was 
removed  to  conform  with  new  layouts. 
The  Bridgeport  pipe  was  found  to  be 
in  such  excellent  condition  that  it  was 
re-installed  in  the  new  work.  As  far 
as  could  be  determined,  this  pipe  was 
in  just  as  good  condition  as  when  first 
installed  more  than  23  years  before. 


43 


As  far  as  iron  and  steel  are  concerned, 
the  deterioration  varies  considerably 
with  the  character  of  the  water,  the 
flow,  the  temperature  and  the  pressure. 
Where  very  hot  water  is  used  in  large 
quantities,  such  pipe  has  been  known 
to  fail  in  New  York  City  in  the  short 
space  of  3  years.  Under  more  favor- 
able conditions  of  use,  hot  water  pipe 
will  last  10  or  12  years,  using  the  same 
water.  Repairs  on  iron  and  steel  pipes 
are  apt  to  begin  in  less  than  2  years. 

In  order  to  take  some  definite  account 
of  depreciation  and  repairs,  figures 
should  be  assembled  on  the  actual  per- 
formance in  the  locality  where  the 
installation  is  to  be  made.  Ordinarily 
from  7  to  10  years  for  galvanized  steel 
pipe,  and  from  7  to  12  years  for  gal- 
vanized wrought  iron  pipe  may  be 
assumed  as  average.  Figures  have 
been  given  which  allow  shorter  life  and 
longer  life  than  here  set  forth,  but  it  is 
believed  that  these  figures  will  be 
found  extremely  conservative  and  fair 
in  ordinary  cases.  Where  pipe  will  not 
last  longer  than  7  years,  it  certainly 
should  not  be  used  under  any  condi- 
tions, except  for  temporary  work. 

Some  are  installing  deactivation 
plants  with  the  idea  of  eliminating 
depreciation  and  repairs.  Until  such 
systems  have  been  in  use  for  12  or  more 
years,  it  will  be  impossible  to  tell  how 
successful  they  are  in  practice.  How- 
ever, the  upkeep  of  the  plant  itself  after 
the  first  year  will  probably  cost  from 
$60  a  year  up  for  the  smallest  size 
plant  and  more  for  larger  ones.  In  the 
meantime,  the  repairs  and  depreciation 
of  the  pipe  system  should  be  carried 
at  some  figure,  even  though  it  is 


considerably  less  than  the  ordinary 
figure  until  the  exact  benefits  of  deac- 
tivation have  been  proven  in  actual 
practice. 

Renewal  Cost  Renewing  piping 
is  an  extremely  ex- 
pensive proposition,  because  in  modern 
buildings  it  involves  the  tearing  out  of 
permanent  construction  work,  as  well 
as  the  disturbance  of  other  pipes, 
conduits,  etc.  Ordinarily  the  tearing 
out  and  building  in  of  a  new  piping 
system  in  a  modern  building  will  cost 
several  times  as  much  as  the  original 
installation,  and  as  an  installation  it 
can  never  be  as  satisfactory  as  the 
original.  An  actual  example  is  Gold- 
man Sachs  Building  in  New  York. 
Galvanized  iron  pipe  was  removed 
from  this  building  and  replaced  by 
Bridgeport  Plumrite  in  1922  at  a  cost 
of  $12,000. 

This  hot  and  cold  water  piping  sys- 
tem cost  the  building  operators  a  great 
deal  of  money  for  repairs  which  finally 
culminated  in  its  entire  replacement. 
All  this  expense  could  have  been  avoid- 
ed by  using  the  proper  pipe  in  the 
beginning.  The  actual  difference  in 
cost  between  wrought  iron  pipe  and 
Bridgeport  Plumrite  Brass  Pipe  was 
only  $647 ;  a  small  price  to  pay  for  im- 
munity from  circulation  and  corrosion 
troubles. 

The  cost  of  rebuilding  the  piping 
system  in  this  instance  does  not  include 
damage  done  to  the  building,  its  fur- 
nishings and  fixtures.  After  the  in- 
stallation was  completed,  it  was  neces- 
sary for  masons,  carpenters  and  decor- 


44 


ators  to  contribute  toward  repairing 
the  damages  incident  to  the  work  of 
renewal. 

While  it  is  desirable  to  take  advan- 
tage of  every  factor  that  will  reduce 


the  first  cost  of  an  installation  without 
impairing  its  usefulness,  the  fact  re- 
mains that  a  brass  pipe  installation  is 
worth  in  actual  economic  performance 
several  times  its  cost  over  iron  or  steel. 


Figure  43.  Typical  basin  installation  in  Goldman-Sachs  Building  where  Bridgeport  Plumrite  Brass  Pipe 
replaced  galvanized  iron.  The  figures  given  in  the  text  do  not  include  the  cost  of  reinstalling  the  walls,  floors 
and  ceilings  of  the  building  after  the  plumbing  work  was  completed. 


45 


Figure  45.     Cornell  University  Medical  School 

Architects,  McKim,  Mead  &  White 
Engineer,  Mortimer  Foster  of  McKim,  Mead  &  White 


Figure  44.     Old  Yale  Club,  New  York,  now  occupied 
by  the  Delta  Kappa  Epsilon  Society 

Architects,  Tracy  &  Swartwout 


46 


Architects,  Trowbridge  &  Livingstone 


Architect,  Charles  A.  Pratt 


Figure  46.  In  the  Knickerbocker  Hotel,  the  principal  distribution  to  hot  and  cold  water  risers  was  made 
above  the  ceiling  of  the  main  floor  where  a  leak  would  have  resulted  in  most  serious  damage.  The  danger  of 
accident  was  eliminated  by  the  proper  installation  of  Bridgeport  Plumrite  Brass  Pipe.  When  the  Knickerbocker 
Hotel  was  converted  into  a  commercial  building,  the  brass  pipe  was  found  to  be  in  perfect  condition. 


Figure  47,     Speyer  Building, 
New  York. 


Architects,  De  Lemas  and  Cordes 
Engineer,  A.  R.  Wolff 


Lillibridge  96-2201 


General  Library     . 
University  of  Calif orma 

Berkeley 


LD  21-100m-2,'55 
(B139s22)476 


t 


Photomount 
Pamphlet 

Binder 
Gaylord  Bros. 

Makers 
Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

PAT.  JAN  21,  1908 


493319 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


